ANATOMY = The DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Before we get into the basic message, know that, you will
see "Words n Phrases" as:
Circulatory System; Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Intestine, Lymph System,
Amylase, Gastric Juices, Pepsin, Pancreas, Bile, Liver, Trypsin, Gall Bladder and
more.
Below the main message, each of these is explained.
Just check there for more helpful
information as you proceed with this knowledge-to-health site. Thank you .
It's now May, 2004 and I've come to review this
site. After checking what you see below,
I decided to "go to the end = at place where I said: more
coming ..
Add there a web site representing nearly 12 years of research,
experience. Consider
the success of our website presentations: do "peruse" what I
feel is the culmination of
the "12 year Learning". Go and see, or better yet, keep reading,
and you will "run into
it = when you do = "take your time = there is a lot there. After all
it's 12 years of work.
In the digestive system, ingested food is converted into a form that can be absorbed into the circulatory system for distribution to and utilization by the various tissues of the body.
This is accomplished both physically, by mastication in the mouth and
churning of the
stomach, and chemically, by secretions and enzymes of the
gastrointestinal tract.
Beginning at the mouth, all food passes through the alimentary canal (pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines) before it reaches the anus, where undigested matter is eliminated as waste. The outer walls of the digestive tract are composed of layers of muscle and tissue that undergo waves of contraction (peristalsis), thereby pushing the food along its digestive path.
The inner lining contains glands that secrete the
acids and enzymes necessary
to break down food into a form utilizable by the
body.
Digestion begins in the mouth, where chewing reduces the food
to fine texture, and saliva moistens it and begins the conversion of starch into
simple sugars by means
of an enzyme, salivary amylase.
The food is then swallowed, passing through the pharynx and down
the muscular
esophagus, or gullet, to the expanded muscular pouch-like section
of the
gastrointestinal tract, the stomach.
More about Discomfort in the Digestive System
Indigestion
Yeast
overgrowth
Gas
Fatigue
Constipation
Cramping
Abdominal discomfort
Bloating
Weakened Immune System
Function
Poor Overall Health
The real problem is when the "Bad Bacteria"
overrun your GI tract
little or no "Good Bacteria" to create a more balanced flora.
This will affect the Immune System (which is your most
important helper
against infections and poor health results. You must now do whatever is
necessary to minimize the "bad" and replenish the "good"
bacteria.
There must be more good and minimal bad in order to improve your health.
Circulatory System
Group of organs that transport blood and the substances it carries to and from all parts of the body. The circulatory system can be considered as composed of two parts: the systemic circulation, which serves the body as a whole except for the lungs, and the pulmonary circulation, which carries the blood to and from the lungs.
The organs of circulatory system consist of vessels that carry the blood and a muscular pump, the heart, that drives the blood. Of the vessels, the arteries carry blood away from the heart; the main arterial vessel, the aorta, branches into smaller arteries, which in turn branch repeatedly into still smaller vessels and reach all parts of the body. Within the body tissues, the vessels are microscopic capillaries through which gas and nutrient exchange occurs respiration.
Blood leaving the tissue capillaries enters converging vessels, the veins, to return to the heart and lungs. The human heart is a four-chambered organ
with a dividing wall, or septum, that separates it into a right heart for
pumping blood from the returning veins into the lungs and a left heart for
pumping blood from the lungs to the body via the aorta.
An auxiliary system, the lymphatic
system , is composed of vessels that collect lymph from body tissues.
Carried to converging vessels of increasing size, the lymph enters the thoracic
duct and is emptied into a large vein near the heart.
Lymphatic System
Network of vessels carrying lymph, or tissue-cleansing fluid, from the tissues into the veins of the circulatory system. The lymphatic system functions along with the circulatory system in absorbing nutrients from the small intestines. A large portion of digested fats are absorbed via the lymphatic capillaries. Like the blood circulatory system, the lymphatic system is composed of fine capillaries that lie adjacent to the blood vessels.
These merge into larger tributaries known as trunks, and these in turn merge into two still larger vessels called ducts. The thoracic and right lymphatic ducts empty into the venous system in the region of the collarbones.
Lymph, a colorless fluid whose composition is similar to that of blood except that it does not contain red blood cells or platelets, and contains considerably less protein, is continuously passing through the walls of the capillaries.
It transports nutrients to the cells and collects waste products. Most of the lymph returns to the venous capillaries; however, a small amount (about 10%) enters the terminal lymphatic capillaries and is returned to the blood via the lymphatic system.
The fluid that flows through the lymphatic system is functionally important because it contains substances having large molecules (such as proteins and bacteria) that cannot enter the small pores of the venous capillaries.
Along the lymphatic network in certain areas of the body (neck, armpit, groin, abdomen, chest) are small reservoirs, the lymph nodes, which collect bacteria and other deleterious agents from the lymph which passes through them, and act as a barrier against the entrance of these substances into the bloodstream.
In a disease state, therefore, the lymph nodes may become filled with harmful material to the degree where they can be seen or felt; therefore, enlarged lymph nodes are of diagnostic importance.
Such enlargement of the lymph nodes can be a warning sign of various kinds of cancer, including breast cancer and Hodgkin's disease.
In cases where a cancerous growth has developed, removal of lymph nodes may help to prevent its further spread. However, such a procedure also slows the flow of lymph and may thus render some of the body vulnerable to infection.
Mouth
Entrance to the digestive and respiratory tracts. The mouth, or oral cavity, is ordinarily a simple opening in lower animals; in vertebrates it is a more complex structure.
In humans, the mouth is defined in front and at the sides by the lips, jawbone, teeth, and gums; in the rear it merges with the throat. The roof of the mouth is composed of the hard and soft palates and the floor of the mouth is formed by the tongue, a muscular structure that contains the organs of taste (taste buds).
The lips, palates, tongue, and teeth are the major components in speech formation, using the “raw sound” formed in the larynx.
The process of digestion begins in the mouth; the chewing and grinding action of the teeth reduces the food to a readily digestible substance. The enzymatic process of converting starch to sugar is initiated by salivary amylase (ptyalin) excreted by the three salivary glands located at the angle of the jawbone and under the tongue.
Saliva produced in these glands moistens food, preparing it for processing in the digestive system.
Pharynx
Area of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts which lies between the mouth and the esophagus. In humans, the pharynx is a cone-shaped tube about 4 12 in. (11.43 cm) long.
At its upper end, it is continuous with the mouth and nasal passages,
and connects with the ears
via the Eustachian tubes. The lower end of the pharynx is
continuous with the esophagus.
It is also connected to the larynx by an opening that is covered by the epiglottis during swallowing, thus preventing food from entering the trachea. The pharyngeal area is the embryological source of several important structures in vertebrates.
For example, the breathing apparatus (gill pouches of fish and lungs of land animals) arises in this area. In humans, the pharynx is particularly important as an instrument of speech: it functions with the various parts of the mouth to articulate the initial sounds produced in the larynx.
Here are other things you should know about the PHARYNX:
However, I have to tell you that what you see
above is "our simple way of putting things".
Then there are the words n phrases as you see
below.
That is "above us". We like to keep it
simple !
A. Nasopharynx - extends from posterior choanae of the nose to the
soft palate.
Related posteriorly to the base of the skull.
Contains adenoid tissue and the orifices of the eustachian tubes. This area is not accessible to direct inspection and must be examined by mirrors or optical instruments.
B. Oropharynx - that portion which is visible via the mouth. Extends from soft palate superiorly to vallecula inferiorly. Posterior and lateral walls are formed by the superior and middle pharyngeal constrictors.
C. The Palatine Tonsils are lymphoid aggregates between the mucosal folds created by the palatoglossus and palatopharyngeus muscles. They are covered by stratified squamous epithelium, which continues down into deep crypts. Tonsils vary widely in size and may be sessile or pedunculated.
D. Hypopharynx - Is the portion of the pharynx that lies inferior to the tip of epiglottis. The posterior and lateral walls are formed by middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictors. It extends inferiorly to the cricopharyngeus, where the pharynx empties into the cervical esophagus. Anteriorly, it extends from the valleculae and contains the epiglottis and the larynx. Lateral to the larynx are the pyriform sinuses, two mucosal pouches whose medial borders are the lateral walls of the larynx. The posterior aspect of the hypopharynx contains the posterior pharyngeal wall and post cricoid mucosa.
Esophagus
Portion of the digestive tube that conducts food from the mouth to the stomach. When food is swallowed it passes from the pharynx into the esophagus, initiating rhythmic contractions (peristalsis) of the esophageal wall, which propel the food along toward the stomach.
The walls of the esophagus are lined with mucous glands that continue the lubrication of the food as it is conducted to the stomach.
The human esophagus is about 10 in. (25 cm) long and 1 in. (2.5 cm) in diameter.
Stomach
Saclike dilation in the gastrointestinal tract between the esophagus and the intestines, forming an organ of digestion. The stomach is present in virtually all vertebrate animals and in many invertebrates. In ruminants such as the cow, the stomach is divided into four separate chambers.
One of these, called the rumen, breaks down complex plant materials, particularly cellulose.
In birds, the stomach forms a thick-walled gizzard that is capable of grinding food.
The human stomach is a muscular, elastic, pear-shaped bag, lying crosswise in the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm. It is capable of gross alterations in size and shape, depending on the position of the body and the amount of food inside.
The stomach is about 12 in. (30.5 cm) long and is 6 in. (15.2 cm) wide at its widest point. Its capacity is about 1 qt (0.94 liters) in the adult.
Food enters the stomach from the esophagus, through a ring of muscles known as the cardiac sphincter that normally prevents food from passing back to the esophagus.
The other end of the stomach empties into the first section of the small intestine, or duodenum; the pyloric sphincter, which separates the two, remains closed until the food in the stomach has been modified and is in suitable condition to pass into the small intestine.
The wall of the stomach is
composed of four layers, or tunics: an outer fibrous membrane called the serosa,
a three-ply layer of muscle, a submucous layer, and, forming the stomach lining,
a mucous layer called the gastric mucosa.
The surface of the mucosa is honeycombed with over 35,000 gastric glands and is folded into numerous ridges that almost disappear when the stomach is distended with food. The muscular action of the stomach and the digestive action of the gastric juice convert food in the stomach into a semi liquid state (chyme).
The stomach comprises complex interconnections of neurons formed into intrinsic nerve plexuses, including the submucosal, subserous, or myenteric plexuses.
The stomach is believed to be independent of the central nervous system.
Intestine
Muscular hose like portion of the gastrointestinal tract extending from the
lower end of the stomach (pylorus) to the anal opening. In humans this fairly
narrow (about 1 in./2.5 cm) tube like structure winds compactly back and forth
within the abdominal cavity for about 23 ft (7 m),
and is known as the small
intestine.
It is not only an organ of digestion (for that part of the process
not completed by the stomach)
but is the chief organ of absorption.
By contraction of its muscular walls (peristalsis) the food mass is propelled onward and, as it is carried along, it is subject to the digestive action of the secretions of the intestinal lining as well as to that of bile and pancreatic juice which enter the upper intestine (duodenum) from ducts leading from the liver and pancreas.
Innumerable minute projections (villi) in the intestinal mucous lining absorb the altered food for distribution by the blood and lymphatic systems to the rest of the body.
Food continues to pass into the middle (jejunum) and end (ileum) of the small intestines.
The small intestine joins the large intestine (colon) at the cecum in the right lower abdominal cavity. Here, also, is the appendix, a blind pouch projecting from the cecum.
The large intestine is wider in diameter. Its direction as it leaves the cecum is upward (ascending colon), across the abdominal cavity (transverse colon) beneath the stomach, and then downward (descending colon) on the left side of the abdominal cavity, making a sharp turn in the left lower portion (sigmoid) to merge with the rectum.
In all, the large intestine is about 5 ft (1.5 m) long. Bacteria, the indigestible residue of food, and mucus form the bulk of matter in the large intestine.
The water content of the bulk is absorbed through the walls of the large intestine, and the solid matter is excreted through the rectum.
Amylase
Enzymes having physiological, commercial, and historical significance, also called diastase. It is found in both plants and animals.
Amylase was purified (1835) from malt by Anselme Payen and Jean Persoz.
Their work led them to suspect that similar substances, now known as enzyme processes. Amylase hydrolyzes starch, glycogen, and dextrin to form in all three instances glucose, maltose, and the limit-dextrins. Salivary amylase is known as ptyalin; although humans have this enzyme in their saliva, some mammals, such as horses, dogs, and cats, do not.
Ptyalin begins polysaccharide digestion in the mouth; the process is completed in the small intestine by the pancreatic amylase, sometimes called amylopsin. The amylase of malt digests barley starch to the disaccharides that are attacked by yeast in the fermentation process.
Gastric Juices
Thin, strongly acidic ( p H varying from 1 to 3), almost colorless liquid secreted by the glands in the lining of the stomach. Its essential constituents are the digestive enzymes pepsin and rennin (rennet), hydrochloric acid, and mucus.
Pepsin converts proteins into simpler, more easily absorbed substances; it is aided in this by hydrochloric acid, which provides the acid environment in which pepsin is most effective.
Rennin aids the
digestion of milk proteins. Mucus secreted by the gastric glands helps protect
the stomach lining from the action of gastric juice.
Gastric secretion is stimulated by a number of hormones and chemical substances, by the presence of food in the stomach, and by a number of psychological factors, such as the smell of a favorite food.
A decrease or total absence of gastric juice secretion may be a congenital abnormality or a concomitant of advanced age. Certain cells of the stomach lining secrete a substance known as intrinsic factor, which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B 12 ; absence of this substance results in pernicious anemia, or B 12 deficiency.
Pepsin
Enzyme produced in the mucosal lining of the stomach that acts to degrade protein.Pepsin is one of three principal protein-degrading, or proteolytic, enzymes in the digestive system, the other two being chymotrypsin and trypsin. The three enzymes were among the first to be isolated in crystalline form.
During the process of digestion, these enzymes, each of which is particularly effective in severing links between particular types of amino acids, collaborate to break down dietary proteins to their components, i.e., peptides and amino acids, which can be readily absorbed by the intestinal lining.
In the laboratory studies pepsin is most efficient in cleaving bonds involving the aromatic amino acids, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine.
Pepsin is synthesized in an inactive form by the stomach lining; hydrochloric acid, also produced by the gastric mucosa, is necessary to convert the inactive enzyme and to maintain the optimum acidity ( p H 1-3) for pepsin function.
Pepsin and other proteolytic enzymes are used in the laboratory analysis of various proteins; pepsin is also used in the preparation of cheese and other protein-containing foods.
Pancreas
Glandular organ that secretes digestive enzymes and hormones.
In humans, the pancreas is a yellowish organ about 7 in. (17.8 cm) long and 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) wide. It lies beneath the stomach and is connected to the small intestine at the duodenum digestive system.
Most of the pancreatic tissue consists of grapelike clusters of cells that produce a clear fluid (pancreatic juice) that flows into the duodenum through a common duct along with bile from the liver.
Pancreatic juice contains three digestive enzymes: tryptase, amylase, and lipase, that, along with intestinal enzymes, complete the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, respectively.
Scattered among the enzyme-producing cells of the pancreas are small groups of endocrine cells, called the islets of Langerhans, that secrete two hormones, insulin and glucagon.
The pancreatic islets contain several types of cells: alpha-2 cells, which produce the hormone glucagon; beta cells, which manufacture the hormone insulin; and alpha-1 cells, which produce the regulatory agent somatostatin.
These hormones are secreted directly into the bloodstream, and together, they regulate the level of glucose in the blood.
Insulin lowers the blood sugar level and increases the amount of glycogen (stored carbohydrate) in the liver; glucagon has the opposite action.
Failure of the insulin-secreting cells to function properly results in diabetes, which can occur in two major forms, the division being between juvenile onset and onset in maturity.
Bile
Bitter alkaline fluid of a yellow, brown, or green color, secreted, in man, by the liver.
Bile, or gall, is composed of water, bile acids and their salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, fatty acids, and inorganic salts.
In man it is stored in the gall bladder and, in response to the action of the hormone cholecystokinen (whose secretion by the intestine is stimulated by the presence of food), is secreted via the cystic and common ducts into the duodenum.
The bile salts aid in digestion by emulsifying fats, enabling the absorption of fats and of the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) through the intestinal wall.
Since unabsorbed fats tend to coat other foods and prevent the action of digestive enzymes, adequate fat absorption mediated by bile salts is necessary for the complete digestion of food and the prevention of decomposition of partially digested foods by intestinal bacteria.
The alkaline bile acts to neutralize the stomach acid in the small intestine, providing a more optimum environment for the pancreatic enzymes. The bile is a route of excretion for many drugs and metabolites; cholesterol is excreted almost entirely in the bile, as are breakdown products of heme, such as bilirubin, which color the bile and are known as the bile pigments.
If the flow of bile is impeded by inflammation, gall stones, or other abnormality, digestive disturbances and frequently jaundice result.
Liver
Largest glandular organ of the body, weighing about 3 lb (1.36 kg). It is reddish brown in color and is divided into four lobes of unequal size and shape.
The liver lies on the right side of the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm.
Blood is carried to the liver via two large vessels: the hepatic artery carries oxygen-rich blood from the aorta, and the portal vein carries blood containing digested food from the small intestine. These blood vessels subdivide in the liver repeatedly, terminating in minute capillaries. Each capillary leads to a lobule. Liver tissue is composed of thousands of lobules, and each lobule is made up of hepatic cells, the basic metabolic cells of the liver.
One of the liver's major functions is the manufacture and secretion of bile, which is stored in the gall bladder and released in the small intestine. Bile salts emulsify fats, a process that prepares the latter for digestion by the intestinal enzymes (see digestive system).
The hepatic cells assimilate carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. They convert glucose to its stored form, glycogen, which is reconverted into glucose as the body requires it for energy. The ability of the liver to maintain the proper level of glucose in the blood is called its glucose buffer function.
The end products of fat digestion, fatty acids, are used to synthesize cholesterol and other substances needed by the body. Excess carbohydrates and protein are also converted into fat by the liver.
Digested proteins in the form of amino acids are broken down further in the liver by deamination. Part of the amino acid molecule is converted into glycogen and other compounds.
Urea, a waste product of protein breakdown, is produced by the liver, a process which removes poisonous ammonia from the body fluids. The liver is also capable of synthesizing certain amino acids (the so-called nonessential amino acids) from other amino acids in a process called transamination.
Some essential components of blood are manufactured by the liver, including about 95% of the plasma proteins and the blood-clotting substances (fibrinogen, prothrombin, and other coagulation factors).
The liver also filters harmful substances from the blood. Phagocytic cells in the liver, called Kupffer cells, remove large amounts of debris and bacteria. In addition, the liver stores important vitamins and minerals, including vitamins A, D, K, and B 12 .
Several diseases states can affect the liver, such as hepatitis (an inflammation of the liver) and cirrhosis (a chronic inflammation that progresses ultimately to organ failure).
Alcohol alters the metabolism of the liver, which can have overall detrimental effects over long periods of abuse. In 1994, a bioartificial liver, part machine, part cloned living liver cells, was used for the first time.
Functioning somewhat like a kidney dialysis machine, the bioartificial liver can support patients with acute liver failure until their own livers regenerate, or it can be used by patients while waiting for a liver transplant.
Trypsin
Enzyme that acts to degrade protein; it is often referred to as a proteolytic enzyme, or proteinase.
Trypsin is one of the three principal digestive proteinases, the other two being pepsin and chymotrypsin. In the digestive process, trypsin acts with the other proteinases to break down dietary protein molecules to their component peptides and amino acids.
Trypsin continues the process of digestion (begun in the stomach) in the small intestine where a slightly alkaline environment (about p H 8) promotes its maximal enzymatic activity.
Trypsin, produced in an inactive form by the pancreas, is remarkably similar in chemical composition and in structure to the other chief pancreatic proteinase, chymotrypsin.
Both enzymes also appear to have similar mechanisms of action; residues of histidine and serine are found in the active sites of both.
The chief difference between the two molecules seems to be in their specificity, that is, each is active only against the peptide bonds in protein molecules that have carboxyl groups donated by certain amino acids.
For trypsin these amino acids are arginine and lysine, for chymotrypsin they are tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, methionine, and leucine.
Trypsin is the most discriminating of all the proteolytic enzymes in terms of the restricted number of chemical bonds that it will attack.
Good use of this fact
has been made by chemists interested in the determination of the amino acid
sequence of proteins; trypsin is widely employed as a
reagent for the orderly
and unambiguous cleavage of such molecules.
Gall Bladder
Small pear-shaped sac that stores and concentrates bile.It is connected to the liver (which produces the bile) by the hepatic duct.
When food containing fat reaches the small intestine, the hormone cholecystokinin is produced by cells in the intestinal wall and carried to the gall bladder via the bloodstream.
The hormone causes the gall bladder to contract, forcing bile into the common bile duct.
A valve, which opens only when food is present in the intestine, allows bile to flow from the common bile duct into the duodenum where it functions in the process of fat digestion.
Sometimes the substances contained in bile crystallize in the gall bladder, forming gallstones. These small, hard concretions are more common in persons over 40, especially in women and the obese.
They can cause inflammation of the gall bladder, a disorder that produces symptoms similar to those of indigestion, especially after a fatty meal is consumed.
If a stone becomes lodged in the bile duct, it produces severe pain. Gallstones may pass out of the body spontaneously; however, serious blockage is treated by removing the gall bladder surgically.
(in process = more to come) OK here we are ---
As promised near the top of this site, here is the site that should clear
up much
of thinking and knowledge about "HEALTH" = When it is "not good" = and
What you need to do to get into the system and make changes to HELP YOU
REGAIN IMPROVING HEALTH.
If you develop questions, let me know.
There will be more to add = but not now = soon =
Please visit the following URL = very comprehensive and includes MUCH:
http://www.flora-source-probiotic.com/health-success.htm
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Please send EMAIL to amicos@aol.com We Will get back to you
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There also are things where technology has the answer.
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Updated on March, 2006
An assist to navigate: this may not be news to computer
literate people,
but for many (particularly those who are working hard to find information
that may help their health ... then, this addenda makes sense.
You notice that we've placed a number of "to the
top" spots ... and this is ok, but...
You can do the same even more easily .. when you are anywhere in the
website, and
you want to "go back to the top" ... hold "CONTROL"
and click on "HOME"
and Bingo .... you are there. By the same token, if you are somewhere in
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just hold down "CONTROL" and click on "END"...
Simple. But it works !